Journal rankings · indicator year 2025
Choose a field to open its ranking, or a journal to find its row in its subfield’s list.
Domain ranking · 2025
Life Sciences journal rankings 2025
3,016 ranked journals · Domain
Life Sciences has 3,016 ranked journals in 2025. The median journal has an OJR of 0.79, below the world average of 1.00, up 0.02 on 2024; Q1 starts at OJR 1.27. The three highest-scoring journals with stable ranks are Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy, Cell, and Molecular Cancer: each is likely ranked within the top 31.
Ranks and citation indicators: 2025. Journal access status and listed APC: source snapshot September 23, 2026.
Journals whose main subfield sits in this category and that published at least 30 citable documents (articles, reviews and conference papers) in 2022–2024, the window the 2025 score is computed on.
The OpenJournalRank Indicator (OJR) is a free, publicly available metric of a journal’s field-normalized citation impact, computed from open OpenAlex citation data. It compares citations to a journal’s papers from the previous three years with the world average for papers of the same subfield, year and type, so 1.00 is the world average and values can be compared across fields. It is computed with the NCI3 method.
The middle OJR among ranked journals in this category: half score higher, half lower. 1.00 is the world average for papers of the same subfield, year and type.
The dot is this category, the solid tick is the median of all ranked journals and the dashed line is the world average.
Share of ranked journals in this category that are fully open access, so every paper is free to read. Hybrid journals, which sell subscriptions and open single papers for a fee, are not counted.
Median list price of the article processing charge, in US dollars, among ranked journals in this category that list a price above zero. Journals with a listed APC of $0 and journals with no known price are left out of this median. The At a glance table below gives a second median that includes the $0 prices.
Fields in Life Sciences (5)
Up to All journals3,016 ranked journals
Filters
Rank is the position by OJR within the list on screen; 1 is the highest. The small range under it is the likely rank range: in 95% of 1,000 resamples of the journal’s papers, it ranked inside that range. Journals whose ranges overlap are not clearly different. | OJR is field-normalized 3-year citation impact: 1.00 is the world average for papers of the same subfield, year and type, so values compare across fields. The badge is the journal’s quartile in this list. | Citations per paper over a two-year window, counted from OpenAlex. It is not field-normalized, so compare it only between journals of the same field. ▲ or ▼ is the change from 2024. This is OpenJournalRank’s own count, not Clarivate’s Journal Impact Factor. | Citable documents (articles, reviews and conference papers) published in 2022–2024, the window the 2025 OJR is computed on. A journal needs at least 30 to be ranked. | Share of the journal’s 2022–2024 papers that are free to read in any open-access form. The green OA tag next to a title marks a fully open-access journal. | List price of the article processing charge in US dollars. “$0 listed” means the listed price is zero; a dash means no price is listed. | The line is the journal’s OJR from 2016 to 2025. A label compares the 2022→2025 change with the median change of the journal’s field or domain. Rising needs a relative change of +10% or more that is at least 2 standard errors above zero; Falling needs -9.1% or less (rounded), at least 2 standard errors below zero. Sorting uses that relative change. | Compare |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Rank 1; likely between #1 and #1 of 3,016Signal Transduction and Targeted TherapyOASpringer Nature · United Kingdom | 14.09Q1 | 55.38 21.43 up from 2024 | 1,202 | 100% | $3,790 | Rising vs field, 2022–25 | |
Rank 2; likely between #2 and #4 of 3,016CellCell Press · United States | 10.00Q1 | 36.19 2.51 up from 2024 | 1,416 | 79% | $11,400 | ||
Rank 3; likely between #2 and #5 of 3,016Molecular CancerOABioMed Central · United Kingdom | 9.39Q1 | 38.06 2.29 up from 2024 | 632 | 100% | $5,090 | ||
Rank 4; likely between #3 and #6 of 3,016Cell MetabolismCell Press · United States | 8.52Q1 | 29.24 5.30 up from 2024 | 566 | 58% | $10,400 | Rising vs field, 2022–25 | |
Rank 5; likely between #2 and #16 of 3,016iMetaOAWiley · Australia | 8.16Q1 | 25.45 1.05 up from 2024 | 236 | 100% | $1,320 | ||
Rank 6; likely between #5 and #9 of 3,016ScienceAmerican Association for the Advancement of Science · United States | 7.42Q1 | 22.44 0.97 up from 2024 | 4,951 | 28% | — | Rising vs field, 2022–25 | |
Rank 7; likely between #4 and #14 of 3,016Nature Reviews Molecular Cell BiologyNature Portfolio · United Kingdom | 7.27Q1 | 49.49 9.94 up from 2024 | 346 | 26% | — | ||
Rank 8; likely between #5 and #17 of 3,016Nature Reviews MicrobiologyNature Portfolio · United Kingdom | 6.92Q1 | 38.79 2.35 up from 2024 | 443 | 20% | — | Rising vs field, 2022–25 | |
Rank 9; likely between #7 and #13 of 3,016NatureNature Portfolio · United Kingdom | 6.63Q1 | 21.72 2.93 up from 2024 | 9,958 | 35% | $12,690 | ||
Rank 10; likely between #5 and #26 of 3,016Fungal DiversitySpringer Science+Business Media · Netherlands | 6.46Q1 | 21.31 1.84 up from 2024 | 45 | 33% | $3,490 | ||
Rank 11; likely between #6 and #41 of 3,016Artificial Intelligence in AgricultureOAElsevier BV · China | 6.10Q1 | 17.95 0.92 down from 2024 | 89 | 100% | $1,100 | ||
Rank 12; likely between #7 and #28 of 3,016Bone ResearchOASpringer Nature · China | 6.07Q1 | 20.61 3.93 up from 2024 | 188 | 100% | $3,405 | Rising vs field, 2022–25 | |
Rank 13; likely between #10 and #26 of 3,016ImmunityCell Press · United States | 5.75Q1 | 22.29 3.01 up from 2024 | 696 | 65% | $10,400 | ||
Rank 14; likely between #11 and #28 of 3,016Nature Biomedical EngineeringNature Portfolio · United Kingdom | 5.61Q1 | 19.03 1.95 down from 2024 | 478 | 54% | $12,690 | Rising vs field, 2022–25 | |
Rank 15; likely between #9 and #43 of 3,016Military Medical ResearchOABioMed Central · China | 5.59Q1 | 19.24 0.37 up from 2024 | 219 | 100% | $0 listed | ||
Rank 16; likely between #8 and #59 of 3,016Progress in Lipid ResearchElsevier BV · United Kingdom | 5.42Q1 | 18.89 1.71 up from 2024 | 80 | 71% | $5,530 | ||
Rank 17; likely between #12 and #32 of 3,016Nature GeneticsNature Portfolio · United States | 5.36Q1 | 15.99 3.99 down from 2024 | 950 | 60% | $12,690 | Falling vs field, 2022–25 | |
Rank 18; likely between #11 and #43 of 3,016Drug Resistance UpdatesElsevier BV · United Kingdom | 5.30Q1 | 19.76 2.19 down from 2024 | 223 | 40% | $5,410 | ||
Rank 19; likely between #9 and #61 of 3,016International Journal of Oral ScienceOASpringer Nature · China | 5.26Q1 | 19.32 5.11 up from 2024 | 171 | 100% | $3,890 | ||
Rank 20; likely between #11 and #53 of 3,016Pharmacological ReviewsAmerican Society for Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics · United States | 5.25Q1 | 15.16 3.73 down from 2024 | 147 | 67% | $4,500 | ||
Rank 21; likely between #14 and #34 of 3,016Nature Human BehaviourNature Portfolio · United Kingdom | 5.22Q1 | 12.54 0.80 up from 2024 | 786 | 46% | $12,690 | Falling vs field, 2022–25 | |
Rank 22; likely between #12 and #47 of 3,016Nature BiotechnologyNature Portfolio · United States | 5.19Q1 | 19.55 0.54 down from 2024 | 1,081 | 30% | $12,690 | Falling vs field, 2022–25 | |
Rank 23; likely between #18 and #32 of 3,016Trends in Food Science & TechnologyElsevier BV · United Kingdom | 5.07Q1 | 19.06 2.36 up from 2024 | 1,030 | 24% | $5,440 | ||
Rank 24; likely between #18 and #40 of 3,016Nature NeuroscienceNature Portfolio · United States | 4.95Q1 | 15.28 1.12 down from 2024 | 758 | 57% | $12,690 | Falling vs field, 2022–25 | |
Rank 25; likely between #13 and #55 of 3,016Nature ProtocolsNature Portfolio · United States | 4.93Q1 | 19.00 1.44 up from 2024 | 434 | 37% | — | ||
Rank 26; likely between #20 and #39 of 3,016Science Translational MedicineAmerican Association for the Advancement of Science · United States | 4.88Q1 | 15.49 0.51 up from 2024 | 895 | 45% | — | Rising vs field, 2022–25 | |
Rank 27; likely between #20 and #40 of 3,016Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food SafetyWiley · United States | 4.87Q1 | 16.74 1.69 up from 2024 | 571 | 51% | $5,000 | ||
Rank 28; likely between #19 and #44 of 3,016Nature MicrobiologyNature Portfolio · United Kingdom | 4.83Q1 | 14.17 0.85 down from 2024 | 785 | 61% | $12,690 | ||
Rank 29; likely between #27 and #37 of 3,016Nature CommunicationsOANature Portfolio · United Kingdom | 4.77Q1 | 18.80 1.77 up from 2024 | 26,176 | 100% | $6,990 | ||
Rank 30; likely between #19 and #50 of 3,016Circulation ResearchLippincott Williams & Wilkins · United States | 4.76Q1 | 13.25 0.73 down from 2024 | 672 | 22% | — | ||
Rank 31; likely between #17 and #51 of 3,016Nature MetabolismNature Portfolio · United Kingdom | 4.76Q1 | 17.55 3.16 up from 2024 | 616 | 54% | $12,690 | ||
Rank 32; likely between #17 and #67 of 3,016Nature reviews. CancerNature Portfolio · United Kingdom | 4.66Q1 | 24.85 3.56 down from 2024 | 339 | 22% | — | ||
Rank 33; likely between #11 and #88 of 3,016Molecular PlantElsevier BV · China | 4.66Q1 | 17.25 4.46 up from 2024 | 541 | 62% | $5,000 | ||
Rank 34; likely between #5 and #219 of 3,016Farming SystemOAElsevier BV | 4.57Q1 | 10.01 0.85 up from 2024 | 69 | 100% | $1,800 | ||
Rank 34; likely between #21 and #59 of 3,016Experimental & Molecular MedicineOASpringer Nature · South Korea | 4.57Q1 | 17.90 3.67 up from 2024 | 618 | 100% | $4,490 | Rising vs field, 2022–25 | |
Rank 36; likely between #15 and #85 of 3,016FEMS Microbiology ReviewsOAOxford University Press · Netherlands | 4.53Q1 | 19.47 8.17 up from 2024 | 147 | 100% | $3,297 | Rising vs field, 2022–25 | |
Rank 37; likely between #11 and #120 of 3,016New CropsElsevier BV | 4.51Q1 | 13.32 4.12 up from 2024 | 50 | 100% | $0 listed | ||
Rank 38; likely between #9 and #172 of 3,016npj Antimicrobials and ResistanceOASpringer Science+Business Media | 4.50Q1 | 15.15 4.62 up from 2024 | 68 | 100% | $3,190 | ||
Rank 39; likely between #9 and #106 of 3,016Journal of Extracellular VesiclesOATaylor & Francis · United States | 4.46Q1 | 21.41 6.58 up from 2024 | 347 | 100% | $4,410 | ||
Rank 40; likely between #17 and #80 of 3,016Nature MethodsNature Portfolio · United States | 4.44Q1 | 15.53 1.33 down from 2024 | 1,124 | 49% | $12,690 | ||
Rank 41; likely between #15 and #93 of 3,016The Journal of Peasant StudiesTaylor & Francis · United Kingdom | 4.43Q1 | 4.61 0.31 down from 2024 | 268 | 49% | — | ||
Rank 42; likely between #31 and #56 of 3,016MicrobiomeOABioMed Central · United Kingdom | 4.42Q1 | 15.39 1.39 up from 2024 | 759 | 100% | $4,990 | ||
Rank 43; likely between #33 and #55 of 3,016Redox BiologyOAElsevier BV · Netherlands | 4.39Q1 | 16.43 3.67 up from 2024 | 1,168 | 100% | $4,310 | Rising vs field, 2022–25 | |
Rank 44; likely between #27 and #66 of 3,016Cell Host & MicrobeCell Press · United States | 4.38Q1 | 15.62 3.23 up from 2024 | 628 | 54% | $10,400 | ||
Rank 45; likely between #28 and #66 of 3,016Cell stem cellElsevier BV · United States | 4.35Q1 | 15.98 1.95 up from 2024 | 472 | 61% | $10,400 | ||
Rank 46; likely between #22 and #87 of 3,016Molecular Aspects of MedicineElsevier BV · United Kingdom | 4.29Q1 | 15.43 3.46 up from 2024 | 133 | 38% | $5,220 | Rising vs field, 2022–25 | |
Rank 47; likely between #23 and #87 of 3,016Nature reviews. ImmunologyNature Portfolio · United Kingdom | 4.28Q1 | 22.91 0.47 up from 2024 | 427 | 11% | — | ||
Rank 48; likely between #21 and #91 of 3,016Nature Reviews Drug DiscoveryNature Portfolio · United States | 4.25Q1 | 17.13 3.07 down from 2024 | 555 | 8% | — | ||
Rank 49; likely between #38 and #66 of 3,016Gut MicrobesOALandes Bioscience · United States | 4.21Q1 | 15.97 3.79 up from 2024 | 921 | 100% | $3,060 | Rising vs field, 2022–25 | |
Rank 50; likely between #37 and #70 of 3,016Soil Biology and BiochemistryElsevier BV · United Kingdom | 4.18Q1 | 12.73 1.53 up from 2024 | 850 | 59% | $4,950 | Rising vs field, 2022–25 |
273 Life Sciences journals are labelled rising: their OJR moved up between 2022 and 2025 clearly faster than the median journal of their field or domain.
A journal is rising when its OJR grew from 2022 to 2025 faster than the median journal of its field (or domain, when the field is small), by two tests: the relative change is +10% or more, and it is at least 2 standard errors above zero. So the range of the change at 2 standard errors stays above zero, though not necessarily above +10%.
The bar is that range on a ratio scale; the shaded band, -9.1% to +10%, holds changes too small for a label. The list is ordered by the low end of the range, so the surest rises come first.
- 1Signal Transduction and Targeted TherapyOAMolecular Biology+217% vs groupOJR 4.84 → 14.09range +163% to +281%
- 2Pakistan Veterinary JournalOAAnimal Science and Zoology+181% vs groupOJR 0.66 → 1.64range +121% to +257%
- 3Crohn s & Colitis 360OAGenetics+171% vs groupOJR 0.41 → 1.02range +109% to +252%
- 4The Journal of EthicsCognitive Neuroscience+238% vs groupOJR 0.40 → 1.21range +100% to +471%
- 5Chinese Herbal MedicinesOAMolecular Biology+144% vs groupOJR 0.91 → 2.05range +94% to +207%
- 6Current Molecular PharmacologyMolecular Biology+146% vs groupOJR 0.71 → 1.60range +82% to +231%
- 7ScienceMolecular Biology+89% vs groupOJR 4.27 → 7.42range +73% to +106%
- 8International Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical SciencesOAPharmaceutical Science+113% vs groupOJR 0.20 → 0.43range +69% to +169%
- 9Journal of Food ProtectionOAFood Science+91% vs groupOJR 0.69 → 1.16range +63% to +124%
- 10Advances in Psychological ScienceOACognitive Neuroscience+113% vs groupOJR 0.26 → 0.50range +62% to +180%
- 11The BreastOACancer Research+202% vs groupOJR 0.72 → 2.00range +59% to +476%
- 12PhytomedicineMolecular Biology+63% vs groupOJR 2.00 → 3.01range +49% to +79%
- 13Cellular and Molecular NeurobiologyMolecular Biology+79% vs groupOJR 1.14 → 1.87range +49% to +116%
- 14Medizinische GenetikGenetics+168% vs groupOJR 0.15 → 0.36range +48% to +387%
- 15EBioMedicineOAMolecular Biology+59% vs groupOJR 2.21 → 3.24range +42% to +79%
- 16Molecules and CellsOAMolecular Biology+88% vs groupOJR 0.83 → 1.44range +41% to +150%
- 17Ticks and Tick-borne DiseasesOAParasitology+62% vs groupOJR 1.09 → 1.59range +38% to +91%
- 18Molecular Aspects of MedicineMolecular Biology+83% vs groupOJR 2.55 → 4.29range +37% to +145%
- 19Advances in Neurodevelopmental DisordersCognitive Neuroscience+91% vs groupOJR 0.52 → 0.89range +36% to +169%
- 20EFSA Supporting PublicationsOAFood Science+77% vs groupOJR 0.33 → 0.52range +35% to +131%
No-label zone, -9.1% to +10%Group median changeBar scale -84% to +528% (ratio scale)
251 Life Sciences journals are labelled falling: their OJR moved between 2022 and 2025 clearly behind the median journal of their field or domain.
A journal is falling when its OJR changed from 2022 to 2025 by less than the median journal of its field (or domain, when the field is small), by two tests: the relative change is -9.1% or less (rounded), and it is at least 2 standard errors below zero. So the range of the change at 2 standard errors stays below zero, though not necessarily below -9.1%.
The bar is that range on a ratio scale; the shaded band, -9.1% to +10%, holds changes too small for a label. The list is ordered by the high end of the range, so the surest falls come first.
- 1Planta MedicaMolecular Biology-81% vs groupOJR 0.93 → 0.17range -85% to -76%
- 2Journal of Biomedical NanotechnologyMolecular Biology-79% vs groupOJR 0.67 → 0.13range -83% to -74%
- 3Journal of VisionOACognitive Neuroscience-59% vs groupOJR 0.45 → 0.16range -66% to -50%
- 4Stem Cell ResearchOAMolecular Biology-58% vs groupOJR 0.35 → 0.13range -65% to -50%
- 5Acta Scientiarum Polonorum Technologia AlimentariaOAFood Science-63% vs groupOJR 0.44 → 0.14range -73% to -49%
- 6F1000ResearchOAMolecular Biology-54% vs groupOJR 0.72 → 0.30range -60% to -48%
- 7Agronomy ResearchOAPlant Science-60% vs groupOJR 0.33 → 0.12range -71% to -46%
- 8Wellcome Open ResearchOAMolecular Biology-59% vs groupOJR 0.94 → 0.36range -70% to -45%
- 9Journal of Histochemistry & CytochemistryMolecular Biology-56% vs groupOJR 1.09 → 0.45range -69% to -37%
- 10Journal of OncologyMolecular Biology-45% vs groupOJR 1.12 → 0.57range -52% to -36%
- 11Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative MedicineMolecular Biology-38% vs groupOJR 0.93 → 0.53range -43% to -32%
- 12BioelectricityMolecular Biology-59% vs groupOJR 0.62 → 0.24range -75% to -32%
- 13eLifeOAMolecular Biology-35% vs groupOJR 2.26 → 1.36range -38% to -31%
- 14Materials ExpressMolecular Biology-43% vs groupOJR 0.23 → 0.12range -54% to -28%
- 15Veterinary Clinics of North America Food Animal PracticeAgronomy and Crop Science-52% vs groupOJR 2.14 → 0.90range -69% to -28%
- 16Stem Cells and DevelopmentMolecular Biology-45% vs groupOJR 1.15 → 0.58range -58% to -27%
- 17Journal of NeuroVirologyVirology-44% vs groupOJR 1.13 → 0.57range -58% to -27%
- 18Theoretical and Applied GeneticsPlant Science-35% vs groupOJR 2.29 → 1.32range -42% to -26%
- 19Journal of Food and Nutrition ResearchOAFood Science-45% vs groupOJR 0.31 → 0.15range -60% to -24%
- 20Journal of Ecology and EnvironmentOAPlant Science-54% vs groupOJR 0.94 → 0.38range -73% to -23%
No-label zone, -9.1% to +10%Group median changeBar scale -86% to +608% (ratio scale)
The endpoints below each rank show its likely range. How rank ranges are calculated
Citations made in 2025. Corpus-wide, 84.3% of core-journal articles and reviews published that year have at least one matched reference; the share varies by journal and field.
488 additional Life Sciences journals with metrics are unranked under this release’s eligibility rules: a journal needs at least 30 citable documents in 2022–2024, at least 80% of them with a subfield, and a positive world-average expectation. Ranks are within the whole category; filters hide rows without re-ranking. OJR excludes self-citations.
At a glance
Indicator year: 2025. Publication window: 2022–2024. How these summaries are calculated
- Ranked journals
- 3,016
- Window papers (baseline)
- 2,008,547 +5.3% from indicator year 2022
- Median OJR
- 0.79 -1.0% from indicator year 2022
- Rising journals (2025)
- 273
Window papers are the baseline paper population: citable papers (articles, reviews and conference papers) from 2022–2024 in all journals of the world-average baseline, including non-core journals, counted by each paper’s own subfield. They are not the papers of the ranked journals alone.
| Measure | Year series | 2000 | 2001 | 2002 | 2003 | 2004 | 2005 | 2006 | 2007 | 2008 | 2009 | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | 2013 | 2014 | 2015 | 2016 | 2017 | 2018 | 2019 | 2020 | 2021 | 2022 | 2023 | 2024 | 2025 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ranked journals | 1,416 | 1,528 | 1,615 | 1,712 | 1,731 | 1,801 | 1,865 | 1,956 | 2,004 | 2,096 | 2,222 | 2,355 | 2,484 | 2,599 | 2,705 | 2,838 | 2,923 | 2,983 | 3,027 | 3,037 | 3,015 | 3,000 | 3,030 | 3,032 | 3,014 | 3,016 | |
| Window papers (baseline) | 681,698 | 747,894 | 789,157 | 838,563 | 854,790 | 911,302 | 969,983 | 1,041,301 | 1,106,285 | 1,194,995 | 1,291,816 | 1,389,175 | 1,451,151 | 1,495,499 | 1,547,978 | 1,608,280 | 1,646,156 | 1,651,790 | 1,653,566 | 1,677,661 | 1,731,463 | 1,821,734 | 1,907,316 | 1,955,191 | 1,960,779 | 2,008,547 | |
| Median OJR | 0.59 | 0.62 | 0.63 | 0.69 | 0.71 | 0.74 | 0.778 | 0.810 | 0.813 | 0.869 | 0.8675 | 0.90 | 0.91 | 0.873 | 0.8678 | 0.83 | 0.8177 | 0.8180 | 0.80925 | 0.806 | 0.814 | 0.80931 | 0.80 | 0.784 | 0.77 | 0.79 |
| Measure | Category statistic | Eligible population |
|---|---|---|
| Journal self-citation share | Median: 2.5% | 2,489 journals |
| Retracted papers per 1,000 | Pooled rate: 3.276 per 1,000 | 2,252 journals |
| Output growth | Median: -7.1% | 2,737 journals |
| Open access share | Median: 99.1% | 3,016 journals |
| Listed APC (USD) | Median including $0 listed prices: $3,258 | 1,900 ranked journals with a known listed price, including $0 listed prices |
| International collaboration share | Median: 25.1% | 2,917 journals |
| Review share | Median: 0.3% | 3,016 journals |
| Articles-only OJR | Median: 0.79 | 2,965 journals |
| Uncited share | Median: 26.6% | 3,016 journals |
| Citation concentration | Median: 42.9% | 3,011 journals |
How to read these rankings
- OJR, the OpenJournalRank Indicator
- A field-normalized 3-year citation impact, computed from OpenAlex with the NCI3 method. It divides the citations a journal’s papers received by the world average for papers of the same subfield, year and type, so 1.00 is the world average and 2.00 means twice as many citations as expected. Because it is normalized, it can be compared across fields. Read the methodology
- Quartiles
- Q1 to Q4 split the ranked journals of the list you are viewing into four equal groups by OJR. A journal’s quartile depends on the list: the same journal can be Q1 in its subfield and Q2 among all journals.
- Impact factor (2-year)
- Citations per paper over a two-year window, counted from OpenAlex. It is easy to compare with familiar impact factors but is not field-normalized, so compare it only within a field. It is not Clarivate’s Journal Impact Factor. Why it differs from the Journal Impact Factor
- Rank ranges
- Each rank in the latest year carries a likely range from 1,000 resamples of the journal’s papers. Where two journals’ ranges overlap, the data cannot tell them apart, so treat neighbouring ranks as ties.